David Bastardo Martínez
Ever since the escalation following the October 7 attacks in 2023, as well as the subsequent wars that followed, Israel has changed its paradigm in Gaza toward a hybrid model remarkably similar to that of Iran. Although far from the strategic complexity and efficiency of the “Axis of Resistance,” which is managed by the Quds Force of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), the Israeli model of infiltration and build-up of paramilitary groups has escalated in similar ways.
Although paramilitary groups are not new to Gaza, this hybrid warfare approach by Israel shows that it is willing to explore and apply new unconventional means to exploit the enclave’s geopolitical vulnerabilities to its advantage. Since early 2025, news reports across different channels pinpoint the rise of a splinter group headed by a former Daesh commander, Yasser Abu Shabab,
christened by its leader as “Popular Forces.” The group’s motivation is to confront Hamas, an organization that has controlled Gaza since 2007 and one that, earlier this year, was met with Palestinian protesters calling for an end to the war.
Hybrid Warfare and the Middle East
A research paper from the Journal of Strategic Security defines hybrid warfare as “a strategy used by states and non-state actors that seeks to maximize the effectiveness of force by combining regular and irregular tactics, as well as various military and non-military instruments.” The concept, originally attributed to Frank Hoffman, describes a specific type of conflict present in contemporary international relations.
Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, and in particular since the ascent of Ayatollah Ali Khamenei to power, the Islamic Republic’s geo-strategic understanding of the Middle East and Israel in particular has been based on this approach. Through the “Axis of Resistance” belt of paramilitary Shiite or Shiite-affiliated militias, Iran has sought to encircle Israel and render it geopolitically unstable.
This effort, however, co-exists with gray zone strategies applied by Iran’s other rivals in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia. The emergence of Daesh and other Salaphist groups suggests an effort to contain Iran’s Pan-Shiism through similar tactics.
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