National digital IDs in the age of artificial intelligence

Onur Kara

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Digital IDs increasingly underpin state power, promising security and efficiency. But as AI models learn from leaked or stolen biometric data, these same systems are likely to create profound vulnerabilities for governments, industries and citizens.

In the United Kingdom, it seems the government of Prime Minister Keir Starmer is considering the rollout of national digital IDs – a potential move that sits at the crossroads of immigration policy, the newly implemented Online Safety Act and a fresh inquiry launched by the Home Affairs Committee to examine the potential risks and rewards of state-issued digital identification.

The news from the UK points towards a global trend. Since Finland introduced the first ‘electronic identity card’ in 1999, digital identity systems have played key roles in service provision and public security more than 130 countries. The COVID-19 pandemic was a major driver of adoption, since it heightened governments’ awareness of the benefits of using population-wide datasets for public-health responses. According to the United Nations, by 2024, 78% of member states had enacted legislation or issued policy documents for digital IDs enabling access to public services. Just in the last three months, China has rolled out a new biometric ID programme for online services and Ethiopia has launched its Fayda digital ID, while Armenia has announced plans to roll out a new biometric ID card system in 2026.

Approaches to citizen dataAlthough the introduction of digital ID systems holds significant promise, implementation remains a formidable task. At the heart of the challenge lies the personal data of millions of individuals, which powers each national ID system. The need to maintain comprehensive records of entire populations prompted some countries, particularly early adopters with large populations, to create centralised repositories. India’s Aadhaar programme, operational since 2010, is the most prominent example, hosting the world's largest biometric database, with records of over 1.2 billion citizens. Likewise, Turkiye integrated its population register with residency records in 2007; the resulting MERNIS system has become fundamental to the provision of public services.